训练神经网络通常是由measurin完成g many different metrics such as accuracy, loss, gradients, etc. This is most of the time done aggregating these metrics and plotting visualizations on TensorBoard.
There are, however, other senses that we can use to monitor the training of neural networks, such assound. Sound is one of the perspectives that is currently very poorly explored in the training of neural networks. Human hearing can be very good a distinguishing very small perturbations in characteristics such as rhythm and pitch, even when these perturbations are very short in time or subtle.
You’ll need to installPyAudioandPyTorch以运行该代码（在the end of this post）。
Training sound with SGD using LR 0.01
This segment represents a training session with gradients from 4 layers during the first 200 steps of the first epoch and using a batch size of 10. The higher the pitch, the higher the norm for a layer, there is a short silence to indicate different batches. Note the gradient increasing during time.
使用LR 0.1 SGD培训声
Same as above, but with higher learning rate.
使用LR 1.0 SGD培训声
与上述相同，但较高的学习速度，使网络发散，讲究高音时的规范爆炸，然后发散。
使用LR 1.0 SGD培训声and BS 256
Same setting but with a high learning rate of 1.0 and a batch size of 256. Note how the gradients explode and then there are NaNs causing the final sound.
Training sound with Adam using LR 0.01
This is using Adam in the same setting as the SGD.
Source code
For those who are interested, here is the entire source code I used to make the sound clips:
进口pyaudio进口numpy np波不进口rt torch import torch.nn as nn import torch.nn.functional as F import torch.optim as optim from torchvision import datasets, transforms class Net(nn.Module): def __init__(self): super(Net, self).__init__() self.conv1 = nn.Conv2d(1, 20, 5, 1) self.conv2 = nn.Conv2d(20, 50, 5, 1) self.fc1 = nn.Linear(4*4*50, 500) self.fc2 = nn.Linear(500, 10) self.ordered_layers = [self.conv1, self.conv2, self.fc1, self.fc2] def forward(self, x): x = F.relu(self.conv1(x)) x = F.max_pool2d(x, 2, 2) x = F.relu(self.conv2(x)) x = F.max_pool2d(x, 2, 2) x = x.view(-1, 4*4*50) x = F.relu(self.fc1(x)) x = self.fc2(x) return F.log_softmax(x, dim=1) def open_stream(fs): p = pyaudio.PyAudio() stream = p.open(format=pyaudio.paFloat32, channels=1, rate=fs, output=True) return p, stream def generate_tone(fs, freq, duration): npsin = np.sin(2 * np.pi * np.arange(fs*duration) * freq / fs) samples = npsin.astype(np.float32) return 0.1 * samples def train(model, device, train_loader, optimizer, epoch): model.train() fs = 44100 duration = 0.01 f = 200.0 p, stream = open_stream(fs) frames = [] for batch_idx, (data, target) in enumerate(train_loader): data, target = data.to(device), target.to(device) optimizer.zero_grad() output = model(data) loss = F.nll_loss(output, target) loss.backward() norms = [] for layer in model.ordered_layers: norm_grad = layer.weight.grad.norm() norms.append(norm_grad) tone = f + ((norm_grad.numpy()) * 100.0) tone = tone.astype(np.float32) samples = generate_tone(fs, tone, duration) frames.append(samples) silence = np.zeros(samples.shape[0] * 2, dtype=np.float32) frames.append(silence) optimizer.step() # Just 200 steps per epoach if batch_idx == 200: break wf = wave.open("sgd_lr_1_0_bs256.wav", 'wb') wf.setnchannels(1) wf.setsampwidth(p.get_sample_size(pyaudio.paFloat32)) wf.setframerate(fs) wf.writeframes(b''.join(frames)) wf.close() stream.stop_stream() stream.close() p.terminate() def run_main(): device = torch.device("cpu") train_loader = torch.utils.data.DataLoader( datasets.MNIST('../data', train=True, download=True, transform=transforms.Compose([ transforms.ToTensor(), transforms.Normalize((0.1307,), (0.3081,)) ])), batch_size=256, shuffle=True) model = Net().to(device) optimizer = optim.SGD(model.parameters(), lr=0.01, momentum=0.5) for epoch in range(1, 2): train(model, device, train_loader, optimizer, epoch) if __name__ == "__main__": run_main()
The receptive field in Convolutional Neural Networks (CNN) is the region of the input space that affects a particular unit of the network. Note that this input region can be not only the input of the network but also output from other units in the network, therefore this receptive field can be calculated relative to the input that we consider and also relative the unit that we are taking into consideration as the “receiver” of this input region. Usually, when the receptive field term is mentioned, it is taking into consideration the final output unit of the network (i.e. a single unit on a binary classification task) in relation to the network input (i.e. input image of the network).
这是很容易看到，在CNN，感受域可以使用不同的方法，例如增加：堆叠多个层（深度），子采样（池，跨越），过滤器扩张（扩张卷积）等。在理论上，当你stack more layers you can increase your receptive field linearly, however, in practice, things aren’t simple as we thought, as shown by Luo, Wenjie et al.article. In the article, they introduce the concept of the “Effective Receptive Field”, or ERF; the intuition behind the concept is that not all pixels in the receptive field contribute equally to the output unit’s response. When doing the forward pass, we can see that the central receptive field pixels can propagate their information to the output using many different paths, as they are part of multiple output unit’s calculations.
In the figure below, we can see in left the input pixels, after that we have a feature map calculated from the input pixels using a 3×3 convolution filter and then finally the output after another 3×3 filtering. The numbers inside the pixels on the left image represent how many times this pixel was part of a convolution step (each sliding step of the filter). As we can see, some pixels like the central ones will have their information propagated through many different paths in the network, while the pixels on the borders are propagated along a single path.
Receptive Field across 3 different layers using 3×3 filters.
By looking at the image above, it isn’t that surprising that the effective receptive field impact on the final output computation will look more like aGaussian distributioninstead of a uniform distribution. What is actually more even interesting is that this receptive field isdynamicand changes during the training. The impact of this on the backpropagation is that the central pixels will have a larger gradient magnitude when compared to the border pixels.
In the article written by Luo, Wenjie et al., they devised a way to quantify the effect on each input pixel of the network by calculating the quantitythat represents how much each pixelcontributes to the output.
In thepaper, they did experimentations to visualize the effective receptive field using multiple different architectures, activations, etc. I replicate here the ones that I found most interesting:
Figure 1 from the paper “Understanding the Effective Receptive Field in Deep Convolutional Neural Networks”, by Luo, Wenjie et al.
As we can see from theFigure 1of thepaper, where they compare the effect of the number of layers, initialization schemes, and different activations, the results are amazing. We can clearly see the Gaussian and also the sparsity added by the ReLU activations.
There are also some comparisons onFigure 3的纸，其中CIFAR-10和CamVid数据集被用于训练网络。
Figure 3 of the paper “Understanding the Effective Receptive Field in Deep Convolutional Neural Networks”, by Luo, Wenjie et al.
As we can see, the size of the effective receptive field is very dynamic and it is increased by a large margin after the training, which implies, as stated by authors of the paper, that better initialization schemes can be employed to increase the receptive field in the beginning of the training. They actually developed a different initialization scheme and were able to get 30% training speed-up, however, these results weren’t consistent.
Foveal vision on reading activity. Image from http://www.learning-systems.ch.
PS: Just for the sake of curiosity, some birds that do complex aerial movements such as the hummingbird, have2个foveas而不是单一的一个，这意味着它们不仅对中部地区也对双方的尖锐眼光准确。
Presentation about an “Achitectural Zoo” of different applications and architectures of CNNs. Presented at Machine Learning Meetup in Porto Alegre yesterday.
If you are following some Machine Learning news, you certainly saw the work done by Ryan Dahl on自动彩色化(Hacker News comments,Reddit comments）。This amazing work uses pixelhypercolumninformation extracted from the VGG-16 network in order to colorize images.Samim还使用的网络来处理黑白视频帧和下面产生的惊人的视频：
Colorizing Black&White Movies with Neural Networks (video by Samim, network by Ryan)
But how does this hypercolumns works ? How to extract them to use on such variety of pixel classification problems ? The main idea of this post is to use the VGG-16 pre-trained network together with Keras and Scikit-Learn in order to extract the pixel hypercolumns and take a superficial look at the information present on it. I’m writing this because I haven’t found anything in Python to do that and this may be really useful for others working on pixel classification, segmentation, etc.
超柱状体
Many algorithms using features from CNNs (Convolutional Neural Networks) usually use the last FC (fully-connected) layer features in order to extract information about certain input. However, the information in the last FC layer may be too coarse spatially to allow precise localization (due to sequences of maxpooling, etc.), on the other side, the first layers may be spatially precise but will lack semantic information. To get the best of both worlds, the authors of thehypercolumn paperdefine the hypercolumn of a pixel as the vector of activations of all CNN units “above” that pixel.
Hypercolumn提取(by Hypercolumns for Object Segmentation and Fine-grained Localization)
The first step on the extraction of the hypercolumns is to feed the image into the CNN (Convolutional Neural Network) and extract the feature map activations for each location of the image. The tricky part is when the feature maps are smaller than the input image, for instance after a pooling operation, the authors of the paper then do a bilinear upsampling of the feature map in order to keep the feature maps on the same size of the input. There are also the issue with the FC (fully-connected) layers, because you can’t isolate units semantically tied only to one pixel of the image, so the FC activations are seen as 1×1 feature maps, which means that all locations shares the same information regarding the FC part of the hypercolumn. All these activations are then concatenated to create the hypercolumn. For instance, if we take the VGG-16 architecture to use only the first 2 convolutional layers after the max pooling operations, we will have a hypercolumn with the size of:
Everything sounds cool, but how do we extract hypercolumns in practice ?
VGG-16
能够提取超柱状体之前,我们的ll setup the VGG-16 pre-trained network, because you know, the price of a good GPU (I can’t even imagine many of them) here in Brazil is very expensive and I don’t want to sell my kidney to buy a GPU.
VGG16 Network Architecture (by Zhicheng Yan et al.)
To setup a pretrained VGG-16 network on Keras, you’ll need to download the weights filefrom here(vgg16_weights.h5 file with approximately 500MB) and then setup the architecture and load the downloaded weights using Keras (关于权重文件和体系结构的详细信息here）：
As you can see, this is a very simple code to declare the VGG16 architecture and load the pre-trained weights (together with Python imports for the required packages). After that we’ll compile the Keras model:
In the example above, I’m compiling a Theano function to get the 3 layer (a convolutional layer) feature map and then showing only the 3rd feature map. Here we can see the intensity of the activations. If we get feature maps of the activations from the final layers, we can see that the extracted features are more abstract, like eyes, etc. Look at this example below from the 15th convolutional layer:
As you can see, this second feature map is extracting more abstract features. And you can also note that the image seems to be more stretched when compared with the feature we saw earlier, that is because the the first feature maps has 224×224 size and this one has 56×56 due to the downscaling operations of the layers before the convolutional layer, and that is why we lose a lot of spatial information.
Extracting hypercolumns
Now finally let’s extract the hypercolumns of arbitrary set of layers. To do that, we will define a function to extract these hypercolumns:
def extract_hypercolumn(model, layer_indexes, instance): layers = [model.layers[li].get_output(train=False) for li in layer_indexes] get_feature = theano.function([model.layers[0].input], layers, allow_input_downcast=False) feature_maps = get_feature(instance) hypercolumns = [] for convmap in feature_maps: for fmap in convmap[0]: upscaled = sp.misc.imresize(fmap, size=(224, 224), mode="F", interp='bilinear') hypercolumns.append(upscaled) return np.asarray(hypercolumns)
As we can see, this function will expect three parameters: the model itself, an list of layer indexes that will be used to extract the hypercolumn features and an image instance that will be used to extract the hypercolumns. Let’s now test the hypercolumn extraction for the first 2 convolutional layers:
layers_extract = [3, 8] hc = extract_hypercolumn(model, layers_extract, im)
That’s it, we extracted the hypercolumn vectors for each pixel. The shape of this “hc” variable is: (192L, 224L, 224L), which means that we have a 192-dimensional hypercolumn for each one of the 224×224 pixel (a total of 50176 pixels with 192 hypercolumn feature each).
Let’s plot the average of the hypercolumns activations for each pixel:
Ad you can see, those first hypercolumn activations are all looking like edge detectors, let’s see how these hypercolumns looks like for the layers 22 and 29:
As we can see now, the features are really more abstract and semantically interesting but with spatial information a little fuzzy.
Remember that you can extract the hypercolumns using all the initial layers and also the final layers, including the FC layers. Here I’m extracting them separately to show how they differ in the visualization plots.
Simple hypercolumn pixel clustering
Now, you can do a lot of things, you can use these hypercolumns to classify pixels for some task, to do automatic pixel colorization, segmentation, etc. What I’m going to do here just as an experiment, is to use the hypercolumns (from the VGG-16 layers 3, 8, 15, 22, 29) and then cluster it using KMeans with 2 clusters:
Now you can imagine how useful hypercolumns can be to tasks like keypoints extraction, segmentation, etc. It’s a very elegant, simple and useful concept.
There are, however, other senses that we can use to monitor the training of neural networks, such assound. Sound is one of the perspectives that is currently very poorly explored in the training of neural networks. Human hearing can be very good a distinguishing very small perturbations in characteristics such as rhythm and pitch, even when these perturbations are very short in time or subtle.
that represents how much each pixel
contributes to the output
.
